Dendrograms were constructed using BioNumerics software 6 10 (App

Dendrograms were constructed using BioNumerics software 6.10 (Applied Maths, Belgium) by the UPGMA clustering method, using the Dice coefficient with position tolerance and optimization of 1.10%. Clusters with ≥ 80% (SmaI) or ≥ 85% (SacII) similarity were considered to be distinct pulsotypes. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing The same strains typed by PFGE were also tested for antibiotic resistance. Minimum

inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 6 antimicrobial agents; rifampicin (RIF), moxifloxacin (MXF), erythromycin (ERY), piperacilin/tazobactam (TZP), tetracycline (TET) and clindamycin CLI), were determined by the E-test method. An inoculum of McFarland 1.0 was swabbed on Brucella blood agar supplemented with haemin selleck chemicals llc (5 μg/mL) and vitamin K1 (1 μg/ml). Plates were incubated for 48 h at 37°C in an anaerobic atmosphere. Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron ATCC 29741 was used as a quality control strain. Resistance was defined according the following breakpoints established by the CLSI guidelines: clindamycin (CLI) ≥ 8 mg/l, tetracycline (TET) ≥ 16 mg/l, piperacillin/tazobactam (TZP) ≥ 128 mg/l, Baf-A1 moxifloxacin (MXF) ≥ 8 mg/l, erythromycin (ERY) ≥ 8 mg/l and rifampicin (RIF) ≥ 4 mg/l [38, 39]. MIC50 and MIC90 were calculated for human and animal isolates. The frequencies at which the MICs for human isolates were above the MIC50 and MIC90 values for all isolates tested were compared with Fisher’s exact

t test. Acknowledgements The research leading to these results has received funding from European Communities 7th Framework programme (FP7/2007-2011) under grant agreement No. 223585 (MR), and the Slovenian Research Agency (grant 1000-08-310144 and J4-2236). Part of this work was presented as a poster (P1408) at 20th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ECCMID), 2010, Vienna, Austria. Electronic supplementary

material Additional file 1: Table S1. PCR ribotypes identified in humans, animals and the environment between 2008 and 2010 in Slovenia. (PDF 75 KB) References 1. Rupnik M, Wilcox MH, Gerding DN: Clostridium VX-680 difficile infection: new developments in epidemiology Dichloromethane dehalogenase and pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009,7(7):526–536.PubMedCrossRef 2. Chernak EJCC, Weltman A, McDonald LC, Wiggs L, Killgore G, Thompson A, LeMaile-Williams M, Tan E, Lewis FM: Severe Clostridium difficile -associated disease in population previously at low risk-four states, 2005. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005, 54:1201–1205. 3. Limbago BM, Long CM, Thompson AD, Killgore GE, Hannett GE, Havill NL, Mickelson S, Lathrop S, Jones TF, Park MM, et al.: Clostridium difficile strains from community-associated infections. J Clin Microbiol 2009,47(9):3004–3007.PubMedCrossRef 4. Wilcox MH, Mooney L, Bendall R, Settle CD, Fawley WN: A case-control study of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008,62(2):388–396.PubMedCrossRef 5.

Anim Genet 29:153PubMed Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model sele

Anim Genet 29:153PubMed Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multi-model inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. Springer, Berlin Crawford NG (2010) smogd: software for the measurement of genetic diversity. Mol Ecol Resour 10:556–557PubMedCrossRef Department of Environment and Land Ordination (2001) Medio Ambiente en la Comunidad Autónoma del País Vasco. Basque Government Press, Vitoria-Gasteiz

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Effective Genome size (EGS) and sampling probability The effectiv

Effective Genome size (EGS) and sampling probability The effective genome size (EGS) for each metagenome was estimated according Selleckchem GSK2126458 to the method developed by Raes et al. [64], using the constants a = 18.26, b = 3650 and c = 0.733. A protein reference database containing the 35 single copy COGs in question were downloaded from STRING (9.0) [64, 65]. BlastX was conducted at the freely available Bioportal computer service [66, 67]. Sampling probability of a random universal single copy gene (1000 bases) and expected number of reads detected was calculated according to Beszteri et al. [26]. Taxonomic

annotation The metagenomic reads were taxonomically classified by BlastX against the NCBI non-redundant Protein Database (ncbiP-nr) [67]. The computation was performed at the freely available Bioportal computer service [66]. Maximum expectation-value was set to 10-3, maximum 25 alignments were reported per hit. The BlastX output files were analyzed according to NCBI-taxonomy in the

program MEGAN, version 4 [68, 69] with default LCA-parameters (Min Score: 35, Top Percent: 10.0 and Min Support: 5). All taxa were enabled. The metagenomes were also analyzed for the presence of gene fragments encoding ribosomal RNA’s using the rRNA and tRNA prediction tool of the WebMGA pipeline [70, 71]. An expectation value cut off of 10-20 was used for the predictions. The reads assigned to the 16S rRNA gene were taxonomically classified by BlastN against the SILVA SSU and LSU databases (version 108). An expectation value cut off of 10-5 was used in the blast analyses and maximum Selumetinib mouse 25 alignments were reported. The BlastN output files were CP673451 combined and analyzed in MEGAN version 4 [68, 69] using the silva2ncbi mapping file. To better capture the taxonomic richness in the relatively few reads assigned to the 16S rRNA gene we lowered the min support threshold while the min score threshold was increased to insure good quality of the hits (LCA parameters: min Score: 50, top percent 10 and min support 1). Metabolic annotation The metagenome reads were assigned to SEED subsystems on the

MG-RAST server (version 2.0) [72, 73]. Maximum expectation-value was set to 10-5, minimum alignment length was set to 100 bases. The SEED subsystems at MG-RAST are organized in a hierarchical structure Bumetanide with three levels, which in the remaining text are referred to as levels I, II, and III, where level III is most detailed. We also searched the metagenomes for key genes involved in hydrocarbon degradation at MG-RAST (version 3.1.2). Maximum expectation-value was set to 10-5, minimum alignment length was set to 50 bases. The genes for the following enzymes where searched; Benzoate-CoA ligase (EC 6.2.1.25), benzoate CoA reductase (EC1.3.99.15) (subunits BadD, E, F, G) benzylsuccinate synthase (EC 4.1.99.11), catechol 1,2-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.1), catechol 3,4-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.

Eukaryotic Cell 2005, 4:1562–1573 PubMedCrossRef 45 Yeater KM, C

Eukaryotic Cell 2005, 4:1562–1573.PubMedCrossRef 45. Yeater KM, Chandra J, Cheng G, Mukherjee PK, Zhao X, Rodriguez-Zas SL, Kwast KE, Ghannoum MA, Hoyer LL: Temporal analysis of Candida albicans gene expression during biofilm development. Microbiology 2007, 153:2373–2385.PubMedCrossRef 46. Nett JE, Lepak AJ, Marchillo K, Andes DR: Time course global gene expression analysis of an in vivo Candida biofilm. The 2009, 200:307–313. 47. Green CB, Zhao X, Yeater KM, Hoyer LL: Construction and real-time RT-PCR validation of Candida albicans P ALS -GFP reporter strains and their use in flow cytometry analysis of ALS gene expression in budding and filamenting

cells. Microbiology https://www.selleckchem.com/MEK.html 2005, 151:1051–1060.PubMedCrossRef 48. Skrzypek MS, Arnaud MB, Costanzo MC, Inglis DO, Shah P, Binkley G, Miyasato SR, Sherlock G: New tools at the Candida Genome Database: biochemical pathways and full-text literature search. Nucleic Acids Research 2010, 38:D428–432.PubMedCrossRef 49. Altschul SF, Madden TL, Schäffer AA, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Miller W, Lipman DJ: Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nucleic Acids Research 1997, 25:3389–3402.PubMedCrossRef

Authors’ contributions HN participated in the design of the study, performed the experimental procedures, carried out the data analysis, and drafted the manuscript. SK and MR helped to perform the experimental procedures. PVD and DD helped in the design of the study and in the draft of the manuscript. HJN participated in this website the coordination of the study and helped to draft the manuscript. TC conceived the study and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Haemophilus

influenzae is a fastidious Gram-negative bacterium that is an important cause of human infections including otitis media, meningitis, and pneumonia [1]. H. influenzae is unable to synthesise protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), the selleck chemical immediate precursor of heme, since it lacks all enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway for the porphyrin ring [2, 3]. However, most H. influenzae strains express a ferrochelatase which mediates insertion of iron into PPIX to form heme [2, 4, 5]. Thus, H. influenzae has an absolute aerobic growth requirement for an selleck inhibitor exogenous heme source or PPIX in the presence of an iron source. Since the only known niche for H. influenzae is humans, the organism must adapt its mechanisms of porphyrin and iron acquisition accordingly [6]. Heme is generally intracellular, in the form of hemoglobin or heme containing enzymes, and unavailable to invading microorganisms [7, 8]. Extracellular hemoglobin, derived from lysed erythrocytes, is bound by the serum protein haptoglobin, and the hemoglobin-haptoglobin complex is rapidly cleared by the reticuloendothelial cells of the liver, bone marrow or spleen [9, 10].

CrossRef 4 Kim HJ, Ha JM, Heo SH, Cho SO: Small-sized flat-tip C

CrossRef 4. Kim HJ, Ha JM, Heo SH, Cho SO: Small-sized flat-tip CNT emitters

for miniaturized X-ray tubes. Journal of Nanomaterials 2012, 2012:854602. 5. Kim YC, Nam JW, Hwang MI, Kim IH, Lee CS, Choi YC, Park JH, Kim HS, Kim JM: Uniform and stable field emission from printed this website carbon nanotubes through oxygen trimming. Appl Phys Lett 2008, see more 92:263112–263114.CrossRef 6. Heo SH, Ihsan A, Cho SO: Transmission-type microfocus x-ray tube using carbon nanotube field emitters. Appl Phys Lett 2007, 90:183109–183111.CrossRef 7. Sakai Y, Haga A, Sugita S, Kita S, Tanaka SI, Okuyama F, Kobayashi N: Electron gun using carbon-nanofiber field emitter. Rev Sci Instrum 2007, 78:013305–013310.CrossRef 8. Iijima S: Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. Nature 1991, 354:56–58.CrossRef 9. de Jonge N, Lamy Y, Schoots K, Oosterkamp TH: High brightness electron beam from a multi-walled carbon nanotube. Nature https://www.selleckchem.com/products/dinaciclib-sch727965.html 2002, 420:393–395.CrossRef 10. Kenneth A, Chalamala BR: The environmental stability of field emission from single-walled carbon nanotubes. Appl Phys Lett 1999, 75:3017–3019.CrossRef 11. Hsu DSY, Shaw JL: Robust and regenerable integrally gated carbon nanotube field emitter arrays. J Appl Phys 2005, 98:014314–014323.CrossRef

12. Purcell ST, Vincent P, Journet C, Binh VT: Hot nanotubes: stable heating of individual multiwall carbon nanotubes to 2000 K induced by the field-emission current. Phys Rev Lett 2002, 88:105502–105505.CrossRef 13. Lee JH, Lee HS, Kim WS, Lee HJ, Heo JN, Jeong TW, Baik CW, Park SH, Yu SG: Current degradation mechanism of single wall carbon nanotube these emitters during field emission. Appl Phys Lett 2006, 89:253115–253117.CrossRef 14. Park CK, Kim JP, Yun SJ, Lee SH, Park JS: Field emission properties of carbon nanotubes grown on a conical tungsten tip for the application of a microfocus x-ray tube. Thin Solid Films 2007, 516:304–309.CrossRef

15. Nilsson L, Groening O, Groening P, Schlapbach L: Collective emission degradation behavior of carbon nanotube thin-film electron emitters. Appl Phys Lett 2001, 79:1036–1038.CrossRef 16. Zakhidov AA, Nanjundaswamy R, Zhang M, Lee SB, Obraztosov AN, Cunningham A, Zakhidov AA: Spark light radiation coupled with the field electron emission from carbon nanotube forests. J Appl Phys 2006, 100:044327–044331.CrossRef 17. Calderon-Colon X, Geng H, Gao B, An L, Cao G, Zhou O: A carbon nanotube field emission cathode with high current density and long-term stability. Nanotechnology 2009, 20:325707–325711.CrossRef 18. Hsu DSY, Shaw J: Integrally gated carbon nanotube-on-post field emitter arrays. Appl Phys Lett 2002, 80:118–120.CrossRef 19. Park JH, Moon JS, Nam JW, Yoo JB, Park CY, Kim JM, Park JH, Lee CG, Choe DH: Field emission properties and stability of thermally treated photosensitive carbon nanotube paste with different inorganic binders. Diamond & Related Materials 2005, 14:2113–2117.CrossRef 20. Bonard JM, Klinke C, Dean KA, Coll BF: Degradation and failure of carbon nanotube field emitters.

e via the generation of reactive oxygen species) effects of UV i

e. via the generation of reactive oxygen species) effects of UV irradiation, in particular in comparison to the co-occurring and phylogenetically closely related genus Synechococcus, which is seemingly much more resistant to UV stress [39, 40]. This apparent sensitivity

has been attributed in part to MK 8931 the tiny size of Prochlorococcus cells as well as their streamlined genomes, encompassing a minimal gene complement for a phototroph and hence reduced UV protection machinery [23, 25, 41]. Still, Prochlorococcus is very abundant in the upper layer of most oligotrophic waters (with the notable exception of the S Pacific gyre; see [3]) and can sustain high growth rates in near surface, UV-irradiated waters [7, 8, 42–44]. In order to better understand the molecular mechanisms by which Prochlorococcus manages to cope with UV stress, we grew P. marinus strain PCC9511 under quasi natural light conditions

by using a custom-designed illumination system which provided a modulated L/D cycle of PAR and UV radiation. This system induced a very tight synchronization of cell cycle and division (Figs. 1 and 3). Most studies that have analyzed UV effects on cyanobacteria thus far have been performed on asynchronously growing cells either by Captisol abruptly subjecting cultures to short-term UV stress (see e.g. [45–47]) or longer term acclimation to constant UV exposure [48, 49]. The long term (acclimation) response of cells is known to be significantly different from the short term (shock) response, as it involves different sets of genes and regulation

networks [48]. Yet, the modulated character of UV stress in nature, its co-occurrence with high light stress (also modulated) and the existence of long, dark recovery periods (i.e., nights) are also very important factors to take into account to fully understand how cells can acclimate to UV stress in nature. The TPCA-1 dynamic aspect of this stress triggers a succession of signalling, gene regulation and/or repair pathways that lead to a temporally complex, coordinated response [50]. This finely tuned orchestration Interleukin-3 receptor of the transcriptome and metabolome cannot be observed after merely subjecting cultures to a continuous (and often harsh) UV treatment, as it generally provokes a “”distress”" response that may eventually activate programmed cell death [51–53]. In our experiments, even though P. marinus sp. PCC9511 was growing at similar rates (ca. 1 division per day) in HL and HL+UV conditions (Figs. 1 and 3; Table 1), this strain could not tolerate a sudden shift from HL to HL+UV conditions, as this provoked a sharp decrease of its growth rate (Fig. 2B and Table 3) and ultimately death of the culture within a few days (not shown).

Overall the number of publications

Overall the number of publications undertaken and supported by Brazilian continuously grew over the last 14 years (Figure 1A, 1BA, Emricasan ic50 1C). This increase, demonstrated in Figure 1A, paralleled the trend in scientific production in surgery over the last decade demonstrated by Heldwein et al [2].

Possible explanations for this increase may be inputed to increasing funding for research by the Brazilian government, particularly the Ministry of Health that over the last decade increased the opportunities for international exchange and dissemination of Internet use [2, 12, 13]. The number of publications devoted to trauma, analyzed as a whole and also in relation to the proportion published XAV-939 molecular weight in journals with impact factor, followed the increased productivity of Brazilian researchers, showing that the production has grown not only in absolute numbers, but also in quality [2, 14]. Thus, the end of residency in trauma surgery in Brazil did not seem to have affected the scientific development of the area nor the enthusiasm of the authors [8, 9, 15]. The sustained growth may be explained by the greater diffusion of courses such as the Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS)

and scientific events throughout the country, which also grew enormously over the last decade (results not shown). We consider that the greater involvement of professionals in trauma is very welcome in our country, given the increasing numbers of motor click here vehicle collisions and domestic violence. According to the Information System (SIM), which collects national 5-FU cost data, the period comprising the years 1998 and 2008, the total number of homicides rose from

41,950 to 50,113 (an increase of 17.8%, higher than the population growth of 17.2% over the same period, despite the disarmament policies developed mainly from 2004), and deaths from traffic crashes increased from 30,994 to 39,211 (an increase of 20.8%, also higher population growth, despite the enactment of the last Traffic Code in 1997 which led to a decrease in the quantity of violence, but in absolute terms, lasted only three years – 1997 to 2000) [4, 6, 7, 16–19]. In this study, we chose not to analyze the quality of studies, which could be done by analyzing the number of times they were actually cited. We still performed an evaluation of the quality when we analyzed the impact factor of the journals that published the studies. We opted for the impact factor, since it provides a global assessment of the insertion of Brazilian investigators in the national and international setting of scientific publications. It is important to mention that no single parameters is ideal for determining the quality of publications since high-impact journals can still publish low impact studies [16, 20].

Smith MR, Egerdie B, Hernandez Toriz N, Feldman R, Tammela TL, Sa

Smith MR, Egerdie B, Hernandez Toriz N, Feldman R, Tammela TL, Saad F, Heracek

J, Szwedowski M, Ke C, Kupic A, Leder BZ, Goessl C (2009) Denosumab in men receiving androgen-deprivation therapy for prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 361:745–755PubMedCrossRef 41. Stopeck AT, Lipton A, Body JJ, Steger GG, Tonkin K, de Boer RH, Lichinitser M, Fujiwara Y, Yardley Ilomastat solubility dmso DA, Viniegra M, Fan M, Jiang Q, Dansey R, Jun S, Braun A (2010) Denosumab compared with zoledronic acid for the treatment of bone metastases in patients with advanced breast cancer: a randomized, double-blind study. J Clin Oncol 28:5132–5139PubMedCrossRef 42. Henry DH, Costa L, Goldwasser F, Hirsch V, Hungria V, Prausova J, Scagliotti GV, Sleeboom H, Spencer A, Vadhan-Raj S, von Moos R, Willenbacher Belnacasan concentration W, Woll PJ, Wang J, Jang Q, Jun S, Dansey R, Yeh H (2011) Randomized, double-blind study of denosumab versus zoledronic acid in the treatment of bone metastases in patients with advanced cancer (excluding breast and prostate cancer)

or multiple myeloma. J Clin Oncol 29:1125–1132PubMedCrossRef 43. Fizazi K, Carducci M, Smith M, Damiao R, Brown J, Karsh L, Milecki P, Shore N, Rader M, Wang H, Jiang Q, Tadros S, Dansey R, Goessl C (2011) Denosumab versus zoledronic acid for treatment of bone metastases in men with castration-resistant prostate cancer: a randomised, double-blind study. Lancet 377:813–822PubMedCrossRef 44. Papapoulos S, Chapurlat R, Brandi ML, Brown JP, Czerwinski E, Daizadeh NS, Grauer A, Krieg M-A, Libanati C, Man Z, Mellstrom D, Radominski S, Reginster J-Y, Resch H, Roman JA, Roux C, Cummings SR, Bone HG (2011) Five-year denosumab treatment of postmenopausal women with osteoporosis:

results from the first two years of the FREEDOM trial extension. Osteoporos Int 22(Suppl 1):S107″
“Introduction Selleckchem Baf-A1 More and more food products bear health claims. The skepticism of consumers regarding functional foods is mainly due to doubts over the veracity of health claims and in the poor and often inadequate control of their claimed properties. It is important that health claims should provide genuine information to help consumers choose healthy diets. Consequently, claims should be supported by a sound and sufficient body of scientific evidence to substantiate them and be reinforced by specific consumer education. Since health claims on food products are increasingly recognized to be important, they are being legally regulated in more and more countries around the world [1]. Although there is a general scientific consensus on how to substantiate health claims on food [2], there is no agreement on the specific approaches and indicators that can be used in different fields.

This is publication No 5584 of

This is publication No. 5584 of Ilomastat in vivo the Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW). VJC was supported with a fellowship from Junta de Andalucía, Spain, and EA with a JAEDoc grant from the CSIC, which was co-financed by ESF. We also thank Cayo Ramos and his group for their help in this research. Electronic

supplementary material Additional file 1: Table S1: Primers used in this study. (DOC 37 KB) Additional file 2: Figure S1: Growth characteristics of P. syringae pv. syringae strain UMAF0158 and the derivatives mgoA and gacA mutants. (A) Growth of the wild type strain UMAF0158 and the mgoA (∆mgoA) and gacA (2βB7) mutants at 22ºC in PMS. At each time point, the bacterial density was estimated by serial dilutions and colony counts on plates of selective medium and expressed as log cfu ml-1 of culture. (B) UMAF0158 mangotoxin production at 22ºC in PMS. At each time point, the mangotoxin production was estimated using cell-free filtrate and represented as the previously defined toxic units (T.U.). The dashed line represents the detection limit of the technique. Mean values for three replicates are given; the error bars represent the standard errors of the mean. (TIFF 939 KB) Additional file 3: Figure S2: Virulence analysis of the wild type

strain P. syringae pv. syringae UMAF0158 and corresponding derivatives using a detached tomato leaf assay. (A) In planta growth inside the tomato leaflets after H2O2 surface disinfection of the wild type strain UMAF0158, mgoA and mboA mutants, and their Vitamin B12 respective complemented derivatives. Talazoparib mouse (B) Severity of necrotic symptoms (necrotic area) on tomato leaflets inoculated with wild type strain UMAF0158, the

mutants in mboA and mgoA with their respective complemented derivatives. The total necrotic area (mm2) from 30 inoculated points on tomato leaflets was measured 10 days after inoculation and used to compare the severity of necrotic symptoms produced by the different strains. (C) Representative pictures of the necrotic lesions produced by the wild type strain and the different mutants at 10 dpi. Different letters denote statistically significant differences at p = 0.05, according to analysis of variance followed by Fisher’s least significant difference test. (TIFF 3 MB) Additional file 4: Figure S3: mboACE transcript levels in the wild type strain UMAF0158. Relative expression of the genes involved in the mangotoxin biosynthesis at the different time points during the growth curve. For each time point, mean values of four biological replicates are given; the error bars represent the standard errors of the mean. (TIFF 415 KB) Additional file 5: Figure S4: Phylogenetic analysis of the MgoA of different Pseudomonas spp. Neighbor-joining tree was constructed with MEGA5 using a partial sequence of MgoA. The boxes indicate the different groups of Pseudomonas and the presence (mbo +) or absence (mbo -) of the mbo operon.

In this work, we report the use of bilayer graphene (BLG) as an a

In this work, we report the use of bilayer graphene (BLG) as an atomically smooth contact in a molecular memory. Although various device structures based on graphene have been explored [12], our study is unique in the context of its use to improve reliability. BLG may prevent the electromigration of Ni atoms into the active material of the device. Furthermore, the use of BLG instead of monolayer or several-layer graphene is twofold. As compared to the monolayer, the probability of complete coverage with BLG is higher in the presence of defects. On the other hand, with the increasing number of layers, the transport properties of the device may be dominated by

the multilayer graphene itself. Thus, BLG tends to provide an optimum trade-off. Methods The device schematic with BLG contact is shown in Figure 1a. We synthesized BLG on a 300 nm Ni film deposited on a 300-nm thermally grown oxide on Si substrate. Ni was deposited by using electron-beam AZD3965 supplier evaporator (Angstrom Engineering, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada) at 1 Å/s rate under https://www.selleckchem.com/products/PLX-4720.html < 7 × 10−7 Torr chamber pressure. Ni pallets were placed in an alumina boat (both supplied by International Advanced Materials, Spring Valley, NY, USA) to avoid any contamination or residues. Prior to Ni evaporation, Si/SiO2 substrate was cleaned with acetone for 10 min, methanol for 10 min, deionized (DI) water rinse for

10 min, then nanostrip for 20 min (commercial Piranha substitute), followed by DI water rinse for another 10 min. This sequence removes the impurities from the SiO2 surface and provides better Ni adhesion. After Ni evaporation, the sample was further processed in UV

ozone cleaner (Novascan PDS-UV; Novascan Technologies, Inc., Ames, IA, USA) to remove any organic impurities on the Ni surface. The sample was then loaded into a homemade CVD furnace (Lindberg/Blue 1-in. diameter quartz tube; Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) at room temperature under Ar ambient with 200 standard cubic centimeter (sccm) flow rate. After ramping the temperature to 1,000°C, the sample was annealed in H2:Ar (65, 200 sccm) ambient for 10 min. BLG was then synthesized by flowing CH4:Ar (23, 200 sccm) for 2 min, and moving the hot portion of the tube to the room temperature by ultrafast cooling Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase [13]. Research grade 5.0 (minimum purity 99.999%) process gasses supplied by Praxair Inc. (Danbury, CT, USA) were used. A 100 nm C60 film was deposited on the Ni/BLG structure, by using thermal evaporator (Edwards Coating System, E306A; Edwards Coating System, Sanborn, NY) at 1 Å/s rate under < 7 × 10−7 Torr chamber pressure. The commercial C60 powder was supplied by M.E.R Corporation (Tucson, AZ, USA). The use of C60 molecules ensures uniformity of the channel material constituents. Next, the sample was loaded in the electron-beam evaporator, and 5 nm of SiO2 was evaporated, followed by 90 nm of Cr by using a shadow mask. The evaporation rates of SiO2 and Cr were 0.