While creating protected areas has been successful in slowing deforestation in the tropics (Brooks et al. 2009) and reducing the extinction risk of large Indian mammals (Karanth et al. 2010), it is not sufficient to protect tree species richness in tropical forests because they are insufficiently protected from encroaching humans (Fandohan et al. 2011; Pare et al. 2009); that is, they

are essentially lines on maps. Similarly, NU7441 mouse the majority of threatened mammals worldwide tend to be threatened by more than just habitat clearance and so more derived/intensive conservation actions are needed to improve their status. Secondly, some threatening processes (such as agriculture and hunting) appear more easily treated to allow species to improve in status compared to transportation Selleckchem PF-6463922 corridors, human intrusions, invasive species, pollution and climate change (Fig. 1). The former two threats can be treated by site creation in association with restoration and reintroduction, and legislation and effective site management, although the difficulties in controlling bushmeat hunting (Bowen-Jones and Pendry 1999; Milner-Gulland et al. 2003) illustrate it is not a guaranteed conservation

strategy. The fragmentation caused by transportation corridors, the wars and unrest associated with human intrusions, the devastation caused by invasive species and climate change are Fludarabine nmr far more chronic threats that require more broad-scale and costly conservation actions. The GLM showed that reintroduction, in conjunction with captive breeding and hunting restriction, was critical to successfully improve the conservation status of mammals. The lack of success of reintroductions alone as a conservation strategy illustrates Liothyronine Sodium the importance of removing the agent of the initial decline of the species before conducting the reintroduction (Caughley and Gunn 1996). For example, reintroductions of macropods in Australia invariably fail unless invasive predators are controlled (Short et al. 1992), whereas large predator reintroductions in South Africa have succeeded because the risk

of retributive human persecution has been removed through fencing (Hayward et al. 2007). Similarly, 41 tropical forest species now only survive in captivity (Brooks et al. 2009) suggesting species management (captive breeding) has been successful in averting their extinction. In concert with other secondary conservation actions (threat amelioration activities), like hunting control and captive breeding, reintroduction becomes a successful strategy provided the initial agent of decline has been removed (Table 1). It is likely that there are interactions between the terms used in the model (e.g., invasive species control is invariably required in Australia prior to reintroductions; Finlayson et al. 2008).