However, future research should include more active control conditions (e.g., neutral audio recordings; Ditto, Eclache, & Goldman, 2006) and compare mindfulness to other empirically supported strategies (e.g., CBT). Although results should be replicated selleck chemicals with larger, more diverse samples, these preliminary findings lend support for the use of mindfulness strategies for helping
Smoking prevalence has decreased dramatically in the last 40 years through sustained public health efforts (Cummings, 2002); nevertheless, many people continue to smoke (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2011). Contrary to earlier expectations, adult smokers are not increasingly hardened heavy smokers (Burns, Major, & Shanks, 2003; O��Connor et al., 2006).
Rather, as overall smoking prevalence has declined, the proportion of light smoking has increased (CDC, 2011). Yet, all levels of smoking are unsafe (Bjartveit & Tverdal, 2005; Coggins, Murrelle, Carchman, & Heidbreder, 2009), and light smoking is a growing public health concern (Schane, Ling, & Glantz, 2010). Women who smoke, particularly older women, have been relatively neglected in smoking research (Brown et al, 2004; Donze, Ruffieux, & Cornuz, 2007). There is a lack of knowledge concerning the relation of level of smoking to quality of life and mortality among middle-aged and older women smokers. Yet, middle-aged and older women may be especially likely to engage in light smoking (Donze et al., 2007; Holahan et al., 2011).
The purpose of the present study is to examine the relation of smoking status to physical health�Crelated quality of life (PHRQL) and total mortality in women in the Women��s Health Initiative (WHI) Observational Study, a large study of middle-aged and older women. Cigarette smoking is associated with increased morbidity and mortality in women, especially from cancer, cardiovascular disease, and pulmonary disease (CDC, 2008; Kenfield, Stampfer, Rosner, & Colditz, 2008; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [U.S. DHHS], 2001, 2004). Smoking also takes a considerable toll on self-perceived quality of life (Heikkinen, Jallinoja, Saarni, & Patja, 2008; Nusselder, Looman, Marang-van de Mheen, van de Mheen, & Mackenbach, 2000; Ostbye, Taylor, & Jung, 2002; Strandberg et al., 2008). Smokers, as compared with individuals who have never smoked or former smokers, particularly longer term former smokers, have scored lower on measures of physical quality of life (Arday et al.
, 2003; Hays et al., 2008; Lyons, Lo, & Littlepage, 1994; Sarna, Bialous, Cooley, Jun, & Feskanich, 2008; Wilson, Parsons, & Wakefield, 1999). When level of smoking has been assessed, the inverse Dacomitinib association of smoking with health-related quality of life has tended to be dose dependent with stronger results for heavier smokers than for light smokers (Ostbye et al., 2002; Sarna et al., 2008; Wilson et al.