The transcription

of pro-IL-1β was also substantially induced by LPS and strongly enhanced by RWE treatment (Fig. 4f) and a substantially stronger production of processed IL-1β protein was detected in the lysate of LPS and RWE plus NADPH-treated cells compared with the LPS-treated ones (Fig. 4g). To see how NLRP3 and pro-IL-1β expression depends on RWE NADPH oxidase-generated ROS, we studied the RWE-induced transcription of the corresponding genes in the absence or presence of NADPH (Fig. 5). Our results show that all of the studied gene inductions by RWE appeared to be NADPH dependent. Furthermore, we found that ROS-inhibitor DPI substantially inhibited pro-IL-1β and NLRP3 gene expression in the LPS-treated or RWE-treated cells, as well as in those selleck treated with their combination. Interestingly, while the LPS-induced caspase-1 production was not affected by DPI, significant down-regulation was observed in the case of the RWE-treated THP-1 macrophages, regardless of the LPS treatment. To see whether the LPS-activated

signal transduction pathways are affected by RWE we studied the phosphorylation of JNK, p38 MAPK and IκBα in response to treatment by various combinations of compounds used in this study. Unlike the phosphorylation of IκBα (data not shown), the RWE-induced p38 MAPK and JNK phosphorylation appeared to be NADPH dependent (Fig. 6a). Furthermore, RWE in the presence of NADPH substantially enhanced the LPS-induced p38 MAPK and JNK phosphorylation (Fig. 6b). p38 and JNK are members of the MAPK family that has been described to activate Sunitinib concentration AP-1 transcription factors.[21] To demonstrate the activation of these downstream signalling

events we studied the expression and phosphorylation of c-Jun and c-Fos transcription factors. Our results show that the expression of c-Fos and c-Jun was not affected by the NADPH[21] (Fig. 6c) or the RWE plus NADPH treatment (Fig. 6d). However, we found that co-treatment with RWE and NADPH significantly increased the phosphorylation Niclosamide of c-Fos and c-Jun compared with that of the RWE-treated cells (Fig. 6c). Similarly, these transcription factors were more phosphorylated in the LPS-activated and RWE plus NADPH-treated cells compared with the only LPS-treated ones (Fig. 6d). These results suggest that the ROS-dependent enhancement of LPS-induced IL-1β production by RWE involves the p38 MAPK and JNK pathways. Allergic rhinitis is one of the most common inflammatory disorders accompanied by high levels of IL-1β production. It is hypothesized that combined exposure to endotoxin and an allergen would enhance the influx and activity of macrophages in the lung and increase the symptoms of allergic airway reactions.[7, 22] Supporting this assumption, here we demonstrate that RWE significantly enhances LPS-induced IL-1β secretion in THP-1 macrophages, as well as in human primary macrophages and dendritic cells. Both pollen grain and pollen extract have been reported to be able to modify inflammatory responses.