, 2008). Different brain regions are involved in consolidation of motor memories. Sleep-dependent improvements in learning a sequential finger-movement task were linked to reduced BOLD activity in M1, as measured with fMRI (Fischer et al., 2005). Furthermore, downregulating Cabozantinib cost excitability of M1 by low-frequency TMS (virtual lesion) results in reduced motor memory consolidation (Muellbacher et al., 2002 and Robertson et al., 2005), a time-specific effect

because it was not observed when TMS was applied 6 hr posttraining (Muellbacher et al., 2002). The finding of differential effects of facilitatory anodal tDCS applied over M1 on online and offline learning of a sequential motor task, namely enhancement of offline learning, supports click here the existence of relatively different neuronal networks involved in the two processes (Reis et al., 2009). Another key contributor to consolidation of sequential motor skills is the striatum (Debas et al., 2010, Fischer et al., 2005, Albouy et al., 2008 and Doyon and Ungerleider, 2002). Recent work showed increased

striatal activity in human subjects in whom offline consolidation was tested following a night of sleep, as compared to those in whom it was tested after an equivalent period of wakefulness (Debas et al., 2010 and Fischer et al., 2005). Interestingly, BOLD activity in the ventral striatum and the hippocampus during the initial stages of oculomotor sequence learning predicted the magnitude of sleep-dependent behavioral improvements (Albouy et al., 2008). Additional evidence for the involvement of these two regions emerged from animal studies demonstrating that local injections of protein synthesis inhibitors disrupt consolidation of motor memories (Buitrago et al., 2004). This effect was present when injections were applied to M1 (Luft et al., 2004) and, to a lesser extent, the dorsal striatum (Wächter et al., 2010) but was absent after injections of

control regions (Luft et al., 2004). The neural processes leading to successful consolidation tested posttraining are likely to start operating during practice and evolve over time after training ended. Typically, evaluation of changes in BOLD signal induced by task performance assesses the consequences of these processes Edoxaban as tested a few hours after or the day after practice was completed. Thus, the neuronal mechanisms that operate during and early after practice and during sleep to support motor memory consolidation remain to a large extent uncertain. It was recently suggested that a possible way of closing this gap in knowledge is through measurement of intrinsic resting-state functional connectivity (Albert et al., 2009, Ma et al., 2011 and Taubert et al., 2011). Spontaneous low-frequency fluctuations in the BOLD signal, in the absence of any overt input or behavior, have been widely reported in the past 15 years (for a review, see Fox and Raichle, 2007 and Cole et al.