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S. suis strain 10 highly tolerated 100-fold MIC of gentamicin, whereas the other streptococcal strains were completely killed after one hour. These data suggest that a specific mechanism for

gentamicin tolerance of S. suis persisters may have evolved and that this is, most likely, not due to a shared genetic background within the genus Streptococcus. Interestingly, after gentamicin treatment of S. suis we also observed a small-colony-variant (SCV) like phenotype (data not shown) that has also been reported for S. aureus upon aminoglycoside treatment [15, 48]. Although it reverted to the typical large-colony phenotype after subcultivation, it remains to be elucidated if this phenotype will change to a stable phenotype after longer exposure times and altered antibiotic tolerance to aminoglycosides. However, at the stationary growth phase the investigated S. suis #OICR-9429 solubility dmso randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# strain 10 highly tolerated several antimicrobials targeting

different bacterial components over time. Given the high SIS3 manufacturer rate of multi-drug tolerant cells produced by S. suis strain 10 during stationary growth, it was remarkable that the cyclic lipopeptide daptomycin efficiently eradicated this subpopulation. This is in contrast to observations that in S. aureus 100-fold MIC of daptomycin failed to eradicate stationary phase cultures [15]. Even though the MIC for daptomycin is rather high when compared to that of other streptococcal species [49] this treatment eradicated S. suis persister cells in vitro. In the last years bacterial persistence and enhanced antibiotic tolerance was intensively discussed in the context of recurrent infections caused by bacterial pathogens. Interestingly, a human case of recurrent septic shock due to a S. suis serotype 2 infection has previously been reported [50]. Together with our present

study this suggests Montelukast Sodium a clinical relevance of S. suis persisters. Although experimental evidence for S. suis persister cell and biofilm formation in vivo is yet missing, S. suis is able to produce biofilms in vitro that tolerate antibiotic challenge [51, 52]. Given the fact that the S. suis colonization rate of pigs is nearly 100% [35, 53, 54] and that antibiotic treatment with penicillin, ampicillin, or ceftiofur failed to eliminate the tonsillar carrier state of S. suis in swine [55], it is plausible to speculate that persister cells, possibly also as part of biofilm structures, may contribute to the observed problems in antibiotic treatments. Indeed, P. aeruginosa persister cells have been described as the dominant population responsible for drug tolerance in biofilms [22]. Conclusions Our study showed that the zoonotic pathogen S. suis is able to form a multi-drug tolerant persister cell subpopulation. S. suis persister cells tolerated a variety of antimicrobial compounds that were applied at 100-fold of MIC and could be detected in different S. suis strains.

The information contained in this database, as well as the peculiar geography of the region, prompted questions about the patterns of distribution of species richness and endemism. The aim of this paper is to analyse the diversity and distribution of

the woody flora of the Equatorial Pacific dry forest ecoregion to answer the following questions: How does the floristic composition and diversity of the SDF in the Equatorial Pacific region compare to other vegetation in the Neotropics? How is the diversity of woody plants distributed amongst areas and elevational bands? Are the species adequately protected within the protected area networks in the region? These questions will also be addressed for endemic species. In addition, we used the checklist to assess the conservation status of the woody component of the Ecuadorean

MM-102 manufacturer and Peruvian SDFs. Methods Study area We used the term SDF in a very broad sense, including a complex mosaic of vegetation formations raging from wide-open savannah-like forests, to closed canopy semi-deciduous variants. Our study area included both the Tumbes-Piura and Ecuadorian dry forests ecoregions as defined by Olson et al. (2001) and also adjacent SDFs from the Loja province in Ecuador and the Cajamarca department in Peru (Fig. 1). The centre of our study area, in the provinces of El Oro and Loja (Ecuador) and the departments

of Tumbes and Piura (Peru), constitutes the most extensive and continuous area of SDF west of the Andes. Fragmented Pictilisib in vitro and isolated forest patches along the coast and the lower western Andean slopes constitute the remaining SDF vegetation north (provinces of Los Rios, Manabí and Esmeraldas in Ecuador) and south (departaments of Lambayeque, La Libertad and Cajamarca in Peru) Amobarbital of this centre. Defined this way, SDFs cover around 55,000 km2 (Aguirre and Kvist 2005). Annual rainfall values are highly variable in this extensive area (from below 250 mm in the areas adjoining the Sechura desert in Piura, Peru to 2,000 mm in northern Esmeraldas, Ecuador), not least because of the influence of El Niño-Southern Oscillation events (Ortlieb and Macharé 1993). Rainfall seasonality is another see more important factor influencing the vegetation, varying from 3 to 8 months in which no rain occurs. Much of the studied region covers areas below 400 m.a.s.l., including extensive plains and low hills in the west. The topography becomes more dissected and increases in altitude towards the interior of the continent where the foothills of the Andes begin. SDF vegetation is present all along this altitudinal range, from sea level to 1,600–1,800 m.a.s.l. in the montane SDFs of Loja (Lozano 2002) and to 1,800 m.a.s.l. in the montane SDFs of the western Andes in Peru (Weberbauer 1945). Fig.